During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, important changes took place in the fields of book printing, image reproduction, and distribution. These developments made religious images more available to a larger audience than ever before. As printing technology improved, copies of sacred images and devotional illustrations could be produced in greater numbers and at lower cost. Because of this, icons of the Cretan school and other post-Byzantine traditions became accessible not only to churches and monasteries but also to ordinary believers Guided Tour Ephesus.
One of the most notable products of this period was the so-called “paper icon.” These were printed devotional images that were cheaper than painted wooden icons and therefore easier for common people to purchase. Paper icons were produced in important cultural and commercial centers such as Constantinople, Venice, Vienna, and Leipzig. They were also created in the workshops of Mount Athos, which was a major religious and artistic center of Orthodox Christianity. These printed images helped spread religious visual culture across wide regions and allowed believers to keep sacred imagery in their homes for personal devotion. In this way, religious art became more closely connected to everyday life.
Theoretical Debates on Religious Painting in the Eighteenth Century
In the eighteenth century, significant theoretical debates emerged about the form, style, and future direction of Greek Orthodox religious painting. These discussions reflected broader cultural changes and the interaction between tradition and new artistic influences. Two important and contrasting theoretical works played a central role in shaping these debates. Both texts were written by painter-monks from Mount Athos, showing the close relationship between artistic practice and monastic life.
The first work was the Hermenia (Painter’s Manual), compiled by Dionysios of Fourna between 1728 and 1733. The second was Peri Zographies (On Painting), written by Panagiotis Doxaras of Zakynthos in 1726. Although both authors respected earlier traditions, their artistic views were quite different. Their writings reveal the tension between preserving Byzantine artistic heritage and adopting new European artistic methods Artistic Influences and Sources of Inspiration.
Dionysios of Fourna and the Byzantine Tradition
Dionysios of Fourna strongly supported the continuation of Byzantine artistic traditions. He directed artists’ attention to the fourteenth century and especially to the works of Manuel Panselinos, a famous Byzantine painter associated with Mount Athos. Dionysios believed that the best way to learn icon painting was through careful study and copying of earlier masterpieces.
To help painters follow traditional models, artists used anthivola, which were patterns or outlines used as guides for copying sacred images. These working tools ensured consistency in iconography and style. For Dionysios, faithful imitation of established models was not a limitation but a way to preserve the spiritual and theological meaning of icons. His approach emphasized continuity, discipline, and respect for sacred tradition.
Panagiotis Doxaras and Western Influence
In contrast, Panagiotis Doxaras admired the masters of the European Renaissance, such as Titian, Tintoretto, and Veronese. He believed that Greek Orthodox painting could benefit from studying Western art techniques. Doxaras even translated important Renaissance texts, including Leonardo da Vinci’s Trattato della Pittura, into Greek. Through this translation work, he introduced new artistic ideas to the Greek-speaking world.
Doxaras argued that painters should closely observe nature and represent it with accuracy and realism. This view differed greatly from the more symbolic and stylized approach of traditional Byzantine icon painting. His ideas encouraged artists to experiment with perspective, light, and natural forms while still working within a religious context.
Tradition and Change in Artistic Practice
These two contrasting approaches—one based on strict Byzantine tradition and the other influenced by Renaissance naturalism—shaped the development of Orthodox religious painting in the eighteenth century. Rather than completely replacing older styles, new ideas were often adapted carefully. Many artists continued to respect traditional iconography while gradually incorporating selected Western techniques.
As a result, post-Byzantine art of this period should be understood as a dynamic and evolving tradition. Printing technology, wider distribution of images, and intellectual debates about artistic style all contributed to the transformation of religious art. Yet, despite these changes, the spiritual purpose of icons remained central. They continued to serve primarily as objects of devotion, teaching, and worship, linking artistic creativity with religious faith across different regions and social groups.
